Automotive Experiences

Articles

Crashworthiness and Failure Mechanism of Polylactic Acid Multi-Cell Tubes Hybridized with Aluminum/Copper Under Axial Compression

Muhammad Syaiful Fadly , Khairil Anwar , Muhammad Sadat Hamzah , I Komang Diego Antara

Published
March 31, 2026

Vol. 9 No. 1 (2026)
Pages 160-178

DOI

Open Access
Share

Abstract

This research investigates the crashworthiness performance and energy absorption behavior of crash boxes constructed from hybrid materials comprising Polylactic acid (PLA), aluminum (Al), and copper (Cu) under quasi-static axial compression. The crash box configuration comprises a PLA outer shell, an internal Al or Cu core, and PLA-based multi-cell structures with varying geometries, including circular, square, and hexagonal shapes. These components were fabricated through 3D printing and subjected to quasi-static axial compression testing. The experimental findings indicate that incorporating a hybrid core significantly enhances energy absorption capabilities. Among the tested configurations, the hexagonal multi-cell design exhibited the highest energy absorption, reaching 0.53 kJ. In addition, the CB-Al-H configuration, which uses an Al core, showed the highest specific energy absorption (SEA) of 77.77 kJ/kg and a crushing force efficiency (CFE) of 0.43%. This SEA value is approximately 69.17% higher than that of the copper-based configuration (CB-Cu-H), which recorded 45.98 kJ/kg with a CFE of 0.48%. The lower SEA observed in the copper-core configuration is primarily due to the higher Cu density, which increases the overall structural mass and consequently reduces specific energy absorption.

Keywords

Crashworthiness; Hybrid crash box; Polylactic acid; Quasi-static test; 3D printing; Energy absorption

References

  1. [1] X. Zhang, G. Cheng, Z. You, and H. Zhang, “Energy absorption of axially compressed thin-walled square tubes with patterns,” Thin-Walled Structures, vol. 45, no. 9, pp. 737–746, Sep. 2007, doi: 10.1016/j.tws.2007.06.004.
  2. [2] W. Abramowicz, “Thin-walled structures as impact energy absorbers,” Thin-Walled Structures, vol. 41, no. 2–3, pp. 91–107, Feb. 2003, doi: 10.1016/S0263-8231(02)00082-4.
  3. [3] J. Ma, S. Chai, and Y. Chen, “Geometric design, deformation mode, and energy absorption of patterned thin-walled structures,” Mechanics of Materials, vol. 168, p. 104269, May 2022, doi: 10.1016/j.mechmat.2022.104269.
  4. [4] F. Djamaluddin, S. Abdullah, A. K. Ariffin, and Z. M. Nopiah, “Optimization of foam-filled double circular tubes under axial and oblique impact loading conditions,” Thin-Walled Structures, vol. 87, pp. 1–11, Feb. 2015, doi: 10.1016/j.tws.2014.10.015.
  5. [5] W. Artha Wirawan, A. Zulkarnain, H. Boedi Wahjono, Jamaludin, and A. Tyas Damayanti, “The Effect of Material Exposure Variations on Energy Absorption Capability and pattern of Deformation Material of Crash Box of Three Segments,” Journal of Physics: Conference Series, vol. 1273, no. 1, 2019, doi: 10.1088/1742-6596/1273/1/012081.
  6. [6] M. Ceyhan and B. Yildiz, “Investigation of Crash Performance of Multi-Cell Crash-Boxes,” Çukurova Üniversitesi Mühendislik Fakültesi Dergisi, vol. 38, no. 3, pp. 613–621, Oct. 2023, doi: 10.21605/cukurovaumfd.1377191.
  7. [7] J. Zhang, S. Wang, C. Di, L. Zhang, H. Zhou, and L. Ning, “3G-optimization of multi-cell crash box cross-section of autobody based on crashworthiness,” Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part D: Journal of Automobile Engineering, vol. 238, no. 5, pp. 887–899, Apr. 2024, doi: 10.1177/09544070221141506.
  8. [8] X. Ma and X. Tian, “Crushing behaviour of a novel hybrid multi-cell structure,” Journal of the Brazilian Society of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering, vol. 44, no. 9, p. 383, Sep. 2022, doi: 10.1007/s40430-022-03625-5.
  9. [9] J. Xiong, Y. Zhang, L. Su, F. Zhang, and C. Wu, “Experimental and numerical study on mechanical behavior of hybrid multi-cell structures under multi-crushing loads,” Thin-Walled Structures, vol. 170, p. 108588, Jan. 2022, doi: 10.1016/j.tws.2021.108588.
  10. [10] A. Porwal, A. Tripathi, and P. Krishnasamy, “Frontal Crash Worthiness Performance of Bi-Tubular Corrugated Conical: Structures under Axial Loads at Low Velocity,” 2020. doi: 10.4271/2020-01-0983.
  11. [11] I. Choirotin, M. A. Choiron, A. Purnowidodo, and D. Bangun Darmadi, “Deformation Mode and Energy Absorption Analysis of Bi-Tubular Corrugated Crash Box Structure,” International Journal of Integrated Engineering, vol. 13, no. 7, pp. 274–280, Nov. 2021, doi: 10.30880/ijie.2021.13.07.031.
  12. [12] A. Saber, A. M. Amer, A. I. Shehata, H. A. El-Gamal, and A. Abd_Elsalam, “Recent Developments in Additively Manufactured Crash Boxes: Geometric Design Innovations, Material Behavior, and Manufacturing Techniques,” Applied Sciences, vol. 15, no. 13, p. 7080, Jun. 2025, doi: 10.3390/app15137080.
  13. [13] A. Mortazavi Moghaddam, A. Kheradpisheh, and M. Asgari, “A basic design for automotive crash boxes using an efficient corrugated conical tube,” Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part D: Journal of Automobile Engineering, vol. 235, no. 7, pp. 1835–1848, Jun. 2021, doi: 10.1177/0954407021990921.
  14. [14] F. G. Alabtah, E. Mahdi, and M. Khraisheh, “Energy absorption characteristics of a bio-inspired prepreg carbon fiber crash box under quasi-static axial compression,” Composites Part C: Open Access, vol. 14, p. 100487, Jul. 2024, doi: 10.1016/j.jcomc.2024.100487.
  15. [15] A. De Biasio, H. Ghasemnejad, S. Srimanosaowapak, and J. W. Watson, “Development of multi aluminium foam-filled crash box systems to improve crashworthiness performance of road Service vehicle,” European Journal of Mechanics - A/Solids, vol. 109, p. 105433, Jan. 2025, doi: 10.1016/j.euromechsol.2024.105433.
  16. [16] M. H. Mohd Hanid, S. Sharif, M. Ahmad, M. A. Suhaimi, C. Y. Khor, and K. A. Ismail, “Crashworthiness performance of thin-walled structures towards design configuration in vehicle crash boxes application: a review,” International Journal of Crashworthiness, vol. 30, no. 6, pp. 704–734, Nov. 2025, doi: 10.1080/13588265.2025.2492975.
  17. [17] S. K. Mert, M. Demiral, M. Altin, E. Acar, and M. A. Güler, “Experimental and numerical investigation on the crashworthiness optimization of thin-walled aluminum tubes considering damage criteria,” Journal of the Brazilian Society of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering, vol. 43, no. 2, p. 113, Feb. 2021, doi: 10.1007/s40430-020-02793-6.
  18. [18] K. Memane, A. Mashalkar, and P. Kumar, “A Review Thin-Wall-Tube Energy-Absorbing Structure : Crash-Box,” Journal of Physics: Conference Series, vol. 2426, no. 1, p. 012060, Feb. 2023, doi: 10.1088/1742-6596/2426/1/012060.
  19. [19] B. S. Kale, K. S. Bhole, N. A. Mandhare, and S. V Patil, “Finite element analysis and deployment of analytical hierarchical process for design of the structural framework for micro-actuators of vehicle crash box,” International Journal on Interactive Design and Manufacturing (IJIDeM), vol. 18, no. 10, pp. 6953–6963, Dec. 2024, doi: 10.1007/s12008-023-01219-6.
  20. [20] H. Tan et al., “Crashworthiness design and multi-objective optimization of a novel auxetic hierarchical honeycomb crash box,” Structural and Multidisciplinary Optimization, vol. 64, no. 4, pp. 2009–2024, Oct. 2021, doi: 10.1007/s00158-021-02961-9.
  21. [21] S. Wu, G. Zheng, G. Sun, Q. Liu, G. Li, and Q. Li, “On design of multi-cell thin-wall structures for crashworthiness,” International Journal of Impact Engineering, vol. 88, pp. 102–117, Feb. 2016, doi: 10.1016/j.ijimpeng.2015.09.003.
  22. [22] T. Chen, Y. Zhang, J. Lin, and Y. Lu, “Theoretical analysis and crashworthiness optimization of hybrid multi-cell structures,” Thin-Walled Structures, vol. 142, pp. 116–131, Sep. 2019, doi: 10.1016/j.tws.2019.05.002.
  23. [23] W. A. Wirawan et al., “Crashworthiness characteristic of aluminum/composite hybrid tubes under axial compression,” Results in Engineering, vol. 25, no. January, p. 103889, Mar. 2025, doi: 10.1016/j.rineng.2024.103889.
  24. [24] R. Ardiansyah, F. K. Indriani, D. Hidayat, A. Tjahjono, A. Nurrohmad, and A. Marta, “Crashworthiness Performance Study of 3D-Printed Multi-Cell Tubes Hybridized with Aluminum Under Axial Quasi-Static Testing,” Automotive Experiences, vol. 7, no. 3, pp. 567–578, Dec. 2024, doi: 10.31603/ae.12247.
  25. [25] G. Zheng, T. Pang, G. Sun, S. Wu, and Q. Li, “Theoretical, numerical, and experimental study on laterally variable thickness (LVT) multi-cell tubes for crashworthiness,” International Journal of Mechanical Sciences, vol. 118, pp. 283–297, Nov. 2016, doi: 10.1016/j.ijmecsci.2016.09.015.
  26. [26] A. Vinod, J. Tengsuthiwat, R. Vijay, M. R. Sanjay, and S. Siengchin, “Advancing additive manufacturing: 3D ‐printing of hybrid natural fiber sandwich ( Nona/Soy‐PLA ) composites through filament extrusion and its effect on thermomechanical properties,” Polymer Composites, vol. 45, no. 9, pp. 7767–7789, Jun. 2024, doi: 10.1002/pc.28302.
  27. [27] Z. U. Arif et al., “Additive manufacturing of sustainable biomaterials for biomedical applications,” Asian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, vol. 18, no. 3, p. 100812, May 2023, doi: 10.1016/j.ajps.2023.100812.
  28. [28] Z. G. Mohammadsalih, M. Muaw-widzah, V. U. Siddiqui, and S. M. Sapuan, “Mechanical properties of wood fibre filled polylactic acid (PLA) composites using additive manufacturing techniques,” Journal of Natural Fibers and Polymer Composites, vol. 2, no. 2, p. 3, 2023.
  29. [29] W. A. Wirawan et al., “Collapse Behavior and Energy Absorption Characteristics of Design Multi-Cell Thin Wall Structure 3D-Printed Under Quasi Statistic Loads,” Automotive Experiences, vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 149–160, May 2024, doi: 10.31603/ae.10892.
  30. [30] G. Sun, D. Chen, G. Zhu, and Q. Li, “Lightweight hybrid materials and structures for energy absorption: A state-of-the-art review and outlook,” Thin-Walled Structures, vol. 172, p. 108760, Mar. 2022, doi: 10.1016/j.tws.2021.108760.
  31. [31] X. Fu, X. Zhang, and Z. Huang, “Axial crushing of Nylon and Al/Nylon hybrid tubes by FDM 3D printing,” Composite Structures, vol. 256, p. 113055, Jan. 2021, doi: 10.1016/j.compstruct.2020.113055.
  32. [32] D. Hidayat et al., “Experimental investigation on axial quasi-static crushing of Al/PLA hybrid tubes,” Journal of Physics: Conference Series, vol. 2551, no. 1, p. 012008, Jul. 2023, doi: 10.1088/1742-6596/2551/1/012008.
  33. [33] E. Kösedağ and D. İşler, “Effect of section geometry and material type on energy absorption capabilities of crash boxes,” Karaelmas Fen ve Mühendislik Dergisi, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 42–51, 2023, doi: 10.7212/karaelmasfen.1150591.
  34. [34] G. Jiga, Ş. Stamin, G. Dinu, D. Vlăsceanu, and D. Popovici, “Material and shape crash-box influence on the evaluation of the impact energy absorption capacity during a vehicle collision,” Ciência & Tecnologia dos Materiais, vol. 28, no. 1, pp. 67–72, Jan. 2016, doi: 10.1016/j.ctmat.2016.03.001.
  35. [35] S. Wesselmecking, M. Kreins, M. Dahmen, and W. Bleck, “Material oriented crash-box design-Combining structural and material design to improve specific energy absorption,” Materials & Design, vol. 213, p. 110357, 2022, doi: 10.1016/j.matdes.2021.110357.
  36. [36] H. Liang, C. Lu, Y. Pu, B. Liu, and D. Wang, “Data-driven initial peak crushing force prediction of hybrid tubes,” International Journal of Mechanical Sciences, vol. 271, p. 109141, Jun. 2024, doi: 10.1016/j.ijmecsci.2024.109141.
  37. [37] J. Dong, Y. Wang, F. Jin, and H. Fan, “Crushing behaviors of buckling-induced metallic meta-lattice structures,” Defence Technology, vol. 18, no. 8, pp. 1301–1310, Aug. 2022, doi: 10.1016/j.dt.2021.07.014.
  38. [38] H. Nikkhah, A. Baroutaji, Z. Kazancı, and A. Arjunan, “Evaluation of crushing and energy absorption characteristics of bio-inspired nested structures,” Thin-Walled Structures, vol. 148, p. 106615, Mar. 2020, doi: 10.1016/j.tws.2020.106615.
  39. [39] A. Tasdemirci et al., “Crushing behavior and energy absorption performance of a bio-inspired metallic structure: Experimental and numerical study,” Thin-Walled Structures, vol. 131, pp. 547–555, Oct. 2018, doi: 10.1016/j.tws.2018.07.051.
  40. [40] Z. Fan, G. Lu, and K. Liu, “Quasi-static axial compression of thin-walled tubes with different cross-sectional shapes,” Engineering Structures, vol. 55, pp. 80–89, Oct. 2013, doi: 10.1016/j.engstruct.2011.09.020.
  41. [41] S. K. Tak and M. A. Iqbal, “Axial compression behaviour of thin-walled metallic tubes under quasi-static and dynamic loading,” Thin-Walled Structures, vol. 159, p. 107261, Feb. 2021, doi: 10.1016/j.tws.2020.107261.
  42. [42] W. Liu, J. Lian, S. Münstermann, C. Zeng, and X. Fang, “Prediction of crack formation in the progressive folding of square tubes during dynamic axial crushing,” International Journal of Mechanical Sciences, vol. 176, p. 105534, Jun. 2020, doi: 10.1016/j.ijmecsci.2020.105534.
  43. [43] W. Chen and T. Wierzbicki, “Relative merits of single-cell, multi-cell and foam-filled thin-walled structures in energy absorption,” Thin-Walled Structures, vol. 39, no. 4, pp. 287–306, Apr. 2001, doi: 10.1016/S0263-8231(01)00006-4.
  44. [44] X. Li et al., “Influence of dynamic compressive loading on the in vitro degradation behavior of pure PLA and Mg/PLA composite,” Acta Biomaterialia, vol. 64, pp. 269–278, Dec. 2017, doi: 10.1016/j.actbio.2017.08.004.
  45. [45] L. Tripathi, O. Singh, and B. K. Behera, “3-D woven honeycomb structures and their composites,” Textile Progress, vol. 56, no. 2, pp. 231–322, Apr. 2024, doi: 10.1080/00405167.2024.2318182.
  46. [46] H. Liang, Y. Zhao, S. Chen, F. Ma, and D. Wang, “Review of Crashworthiness Studies on Cellular Structures,” Automotive Innovation, vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 379–403, Aug. 2023, doi: 10.1007/s42154-023-00237-0.
  47. [47] N. N. Hussain, S. P. Regalla, Y. V. D. Rao, T. Dirgantara, L. Gunawan, and A. Jusuf, “Drop-weight impact testing for the study of energy absorption in automobile crash boxes made of composite material,” Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part L: Journal of Materials: Design and Applications, vol. 235, no. 1, pp. 114–130, Jan. 2021, doi: 10.1177/1464420720952813.
  48. [48] S. Boria, J. Obradovic, and G. Belingardi, “Experimental and numerical investigations of the impact behaviour of composite frontal crash structures,” Composites Part B: Engineering, vol. 79, pp. 20–27, Sep. 2015, doi: 10.1016/j.compositesb.2015.04.016.
  49. [49] S. Heimbs, P. Middendorf, S. Kilchert, A. F. Johnson, and M. Maier, “Experimental and Numerical Analysis of Composite Folded Sandwich Core Structures Under Compression,” Applied Composite Materials, vol. 14, no. 5–6, pp. 363–377, Nov. 2007, doi: 10.1007/s10443-008-9051-9.
  50. [50] A. Baroutaji, A. Arjunan, G. Singh, and J. Robinson, “Crushing and energy absorption properties of additively manufactured concave thin-walled tubes,” Results in Engineering, vol. 14, p. 100424, Jun. 2022, doi: 10.1016/j.rineng.2022.100424.
  51. [51] A. Baroutaji, A. Arjunan, M. Stanford, J. Robinson, and A. G. Olabi, “Deformation and energy absorption of additively manufactured functionally graded thickness thin-walled circular tubes under lateral crushing,” Engineering Structures, vol. 226, p. 111324, Jan. 2021, doi: 10.1016/j.engstruct.2020.111324.
Article Metrics
68
Views
46
Downloads

SCITE

DIMENSIONS

Publication Information
Published March 31, 2026
Section Articles
Copyright Copyright (c) 2026 Muhammad Syaiful Fadly, Khairil Anwar, Muhammad Sadat Hamzah, I Komang Diego Antara
Keywords
  • Crashworthiness
  • Hybrid crash box
  • Polylactic acid
  • Quasi-static test
  • 3D printing
  • Energy absorption