Main Article Content
Abstract
In this study, a packed-bed reactor was used to produce biodiesel from disposed soybean oil using a lipase-nanoparticle bio composite catalyst. During the transesterification process of the ‘disposed of/used soybean oil’, different nano catalysts were employed such as nanoparticles of Ni-doped ZnO, Fe3O4, Alkylcelite, Poly-acrylonitrile fibres and Poly-acrylonitrile nanofibrous membrane and they were abbreviated as CI, CII, CIII, CIV and CIV respectively. In each case of biodiesel production, there were two levels of process parameters like flow velocity (such as 0.25 mL/min-1.25 mL/min) and the reaction time (20 and 100 h) were considered for analyses. From the derived biofuel, the biodiesel blends were prepared as B50 (50% diesel and 50% biodiesel) and B75 (25% diesel and 75% biodiesel). The synthesis of biofuel results, in the biodiesel conversion of cepacia lipase with Poly-acrylonitrile nanofibrous membrane nanoparticles being recorded at about 85% at a 1.25 mL/min flow rate, which is the maximum biodiesel conversion among five grades. The shortlisted biodiesel performances were analyzed by varying the engine speed, grade and kind of biodiesel, The observed results were analyzed. The B50CIV and B75CIV blends recorded the maximum BSFC at 1800 rpm engine speed. CO2 emission by diesel is about 2.3 vol% was recorded. It is the highest value compared to biodiesel blends (B50 and B75). The emission of NOx with the B50CII blend was 220 ppm at the engine speed of 1800 rpm. Based on the experimental results, B50CIV serves affordable fuel and is recommended among those tested in this investigation for CI engines.
Keywords
Article Details
![Creative Commons License](http://i.creativecommons.org/l/by-nc/4.0/88x31.png)
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
References
- H. Huang et al., “Development of a new reduced diesel/natural gas mechanism for dual-fuel engine combustion and emission prediction,” Fuel, vol. 236, pp. 30–42, Jan. 2019, doi: 10.1016/j.fuel.2018.08.161.
- D. H. Qi, L. M. Geng, H. Chen, Y. Z. Bian, J. Liu, and X. C. Ren, “Combustion and performance evaluation of a diesel engine fueled with biodiesel produced from soybean crude oil,” Renewable Energy, vol. 34, no. 12, pp. 2706–2713, Dec. 2009, doi: 10.1016/j.renene.2009.05.004.
- T. Kivevele, T. Raja, V. Pirouzfar, B. Waluyo, and M. Setiyo, “LPG-Fueled Vehicles: An Overview of Technology and Market Trend,” Automotive Experiences, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 6–19, 2020, doi: 10.31603/ae.v3i1.3334.
- P. Rosha, S. K. Mohapatra, S. K. Mahla, H. Cho, B. S. Chauhan, and A. Dhir, “Effect of compression ratio on combustion, performance, and emission characteristics of compression ignition engine fueled with palm (B20) biodiesel blend,” Energy, vol. 178, pp. 676–684, Jul. 2019, doi: 10.1016/j.energy.2019.04.185.
- S. K. Mahla, S. M. Safieddin Ardebili, M. Mostafaei, A. Dhir, G. Goga, and B. S. Chauhan, “Multi-objective optimization of performance and emissions characteristics of a variable compression ratio diesel engine running with biogas-diesel fuel using response surface techniques,” Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization, and Environmental Effects, pp. 1–18, Sep. 2020, doi: 10.1080/15567036.2020.1813847.
- G. Goga, B. S. Chauhan, S. K. Mahla, A. Dhir, and H. M. Cho, “Correction to: Effect of varying biogas mass flow rate on performance and emission characteristics of a diesel engine fuelled with blends of n‑butanol and diesel,” Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry, vol. 140, no. 6, pp. 2831–2831, Jun. 2020, doi: 10.1007/s10973-020-09302-w.
- A. Sule, Z. A. Latiff, M. A. Abbas, I. Veza, and A. C. Opia, “Recent Advances in Diesel-Biodiesel Blended with Nano-Additive as Fuel in Diesel Engines: A Detailed Review,” Automotive Experiences, vol. 5, no. 2, pp. 182–216, Apr. 2022, doi: 10.31603/ae.6352.
- B. H. Tambunan, H. Ambarita, T. B. Sitorus, A. H. Sebayang, and A. Masudie, “An Overview of Physicochemical Properties and Engine Performance Using Rubber Seed Biodiesel–Plastic Pyrolysis Oil Blends in Diesel Engines,” Automotive Experiences, vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 551–583, 2023, doi: 10.31603/ae.10136.
- M. Setiyo, “Alternative fuels for transportation sector in Indonesia,” Mechanical Engineering for Society and Industry, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 1–6, 2022, doi: 10.31603/mesi.6850.
- B. S. Chauhan, N. Kumar, Y. Du Jun, and K. B. Lee, “Performance and emission study of preheated Jatropha oil on medium capacity diesel engine,” Energy, vol. 35, no. 6, pp. 2484–2492, 2010, doi: 10.1016/j.energy.2010.02.043.
- M. Chhabra, A. Sharma, and G. Dwivedi, “Performance evaluation of diesel engine using rice bran biodiesel,” Egyptian Journal of Petroleum, vol. 26, no. 2, pp. 511–518, Jun. 2017, doi: 10.1016/j.ejpe.2016.07.002.
- F. Ma and M. A. Hanna, “Biodiesel production: a review,” Bioresource Technology, vol. 70, no. 1, pp. 1–15, Oct. 1999, doi: 10.1016/S0960-8524(99)00025-5.
- S. Al‐Zuhair, “Production of biodiesel: possibilities and challenges,” Biofuels, Bioproducts and Biorefining, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 57–66, Sep. 2007, doi: 10.1002/bbb.2.
- S. V. Ranganathan, S. L. Narasimhan, and K. Muthukumar, “An overview of enzymatic production of biodiesel,” Bioresource Technology, vol. 99, no. 10, pp. 3975–3981, Jul. 2008, doi: 10.1016/j.biortech.2007.04.060.
- Ö. Can, “Combustion characteristics, performance and exhaust emissions of a diesel engine fueled with a waste cooking oil biodiesel mixture,” Energy Conversion and Management, vol. 87, pp. 676–686, Nov. 2014, doi: 10.1016/j.enconman.2014.07.066.
- M. J. Haas, A. J. McAloon, W. C. Yee, and T. A. Foglia, “A process model to estimate biodiesel production costs,” Bioresource Technology, vol. 97, no. 4, pp. 671–678, Mar. 2006, doi: 10.1016/j.biortech.2005.03.039.
- M. Canakci, “The potential of restaurant waste lipids as biodiesel feedstocks,” Bioresource Technology, vol. 98, no. 1, pp. 183–190, Jan. 2007, doi: 10.1016/j.biortech.2005.11.022.
- M. M. Gui, K. T. Lee, and S. Bhatia, “Feasibility of edible oil vs. non-edible oil vs. waste edible oil as biodiesel feedstock,” Energy, vol. 33, no. 11, pp. 1646–1653, 2008, doi: 10.1016/j.energy.2008.06.002.
- R. Radu, C. Petru, R. Edward, and M. Gheorghe, “Fueling an D.I. agricultural diesel engine with waste oil biodiesel: Effects over injection, combustion and engine characteristics,” Energy Conversion and Management, vol. 50, no. 9, pp. 2158–2166, Sep. 2009, doi: 10.1016/j.enconman.2009.04.026.
- S. F. A. Halim, A. H. Kamaruddin, and W. J. N. Fernando, “Continuous biosynthesis of biodiesel from waste cooking palm oil in a packed bed reactor: Optimization using response surface methodology (RSM) and mass transfer studies,” Bioresource Technology, vol. 100, no. 2, pp. 710–716, Jan. 2009, doi: 10.1016/j.biortech.2008.07.031.
- K. Komers, F. Skopal, and A. Čegan, “Continuous biodiesel production in a cascade of flow ideally stirred reactors,” Bioresource Technology, vol. 101, no. 10, pp. 3772–3775, May 2010, doi: 10.1016/j.biortech.2009.12.099.
- A. Mandal, H. Cho, and B. S. Chauhan, “ANN Prediction of Performance and Emissions of CI Engine Using Biogas Flow Variation,” Energies, vol. 14, no. 10, p. 2910, May 2021, doi: 10.3390/en14102910.
- A. Mandal, H. Cho, and B. S. Chauhan, “Experimental Investigation of Multiple Fry Waste Soya Bean Oil in an Agricultural CI Engine,” Energies, vol. 15, no. 9, p. 3209, Apr. 2022, doi: 10.3390/en15093209.
- U. Rajak and T. N. Verma, “Effect of emission from ethylic biodiesel of edible and non-edible vegetable oil, animal fats, waste oil and alcohol in CI engine,” Energy Conversion and Management, vol. 166, pp. 704–718, Jun. 2018, doi: 10.1016/j.enconman.2018.04.070.
- R. Datla, R. K. Puli, V. P. Chandramohan, and V. Edwin Geo, “Biodiesel Production Process, Optimization and Characterization of Azadirachta indica Biodiesel in a VCR Diesel Engine,” Arabian Journal for Science and Engineering, vol. 44, no. 12, pp. 10141–10154, Dec. 2019, doi: 10.1007/s13369-019-04072-6.
- H. Venu, V. D. Raju, L. Subramani, and P. Appavu, “Experimental assessment on the regulated and unregulated emissions of DI diesel engine fuelled with Chlorella emersonii methyl ester (CEME),” Renewable Energy, vol. 151, pp. 88–102, May 2020, doi: 10.1016/j.renene.2019.11.010.
- E. Rama Krishna Reddy et al., “Assessment of performance, combustion and emission characteristics of the diesel engine powered with corn biodiesel blends,” International Journal of Ambient Energy, vol. 43, no. 1, pp. 435–443, Dec. 2022, doi: 10.1080/01430750.2019.1636867.
- M. Prabhahar, S. Sendilvelan, S. Prakash, and M. Saravanakumar, “Investigation of Pine Oil Methyl Ester blends with diesel on a Compression Ignition Engine to Control Oxides of Nitrogen and Soot Particles,” Rasayan Journal of Chemistry, vol. 10, no. 4, pp. 1075–1079, 2017, doi: 10.7324/RJC.2017.1041847.
- J. Dantas, E. Leal, A. B. Mapossa, D. R. Cornejo, and A. C. F. M. Costa, “Magnetic nanocatalysts of Ni0.5Zn0.5Fe2O4 doped with Cu and performance evaluation in transesterification reaction for biodiesel production,” Fuel, vol. 191, pp. 463–471, Mar. 2017, doi: 10.1016/j.fuel.2016.11.107.
- E. Bet-Moushoul, K. Farhadi, Y. Mansourpanah, A. M. Nikbakht, R. Molaei, and M. Forough, “Application of CaO-based/Au nanoparticles as heterogeneous nanocatalysts in biodiesel production,” Fuel, vol. 164, pp. 119–127, Jan. 2016, doi: 10.1016/j.fuel.2015.09.067.
- H. Wang, J. Covarrubias, H. Prock, X. Wu, D. Wang, and S. H. Bossmann, “Acid-Functionalized Magnetic Nanoparticle as Heterogeneous Catalysts for Biodiesel Synthesis,” The Journal of Physical Chemistry C, vol. 119, no. 46, pp. 26020–26028, Nov. 2015, doi: 10.1021/acs.jpcc.5b08743.
- H. R. Harsha Hebbar, M. C. Math, and K. V. Yatish, “Optimization and kinetic study of CaO nano-particles catalyzed biodiesel production from Bombax ceiba oil,” Energy, vol. 143, pp. 25–34, Jan. 2018, doi: 10.1016/j.energy.2017.10.118.
- K. Tahvildari, Y. N. Anaraki, R. Fazaeli, S. Mirpanji, and E. Delrish, “The study of CaO and MgO heterogenic nano-catalyst coupling on transesterification reaction efficacy in the production of biodiesel from recycled cooking oil,” Journal of Environmental Health Science and Engineering, vol. 13, no. 1, p. 73, Dec. 2015, doi: 10.1186/s40201-015-0226-7.
- Y. Chiang et al., “Functionalized Fe 3 O 4 @Silica Core–Shell Nanoparticles as Microalgae Harvester and Catalyst for Biodiesel Production,” ChemSusChem, vol. 8, no. 5, pp. 789–794, Mar. 2015, doi: 10.1002/cssc.201402996.
- H.-S. Jeon, S. E. Park, B. Ahn, and Y.-K. Kim, “Enhancement of biodiesel production in Chlorella vulgaris cultivation using silica nanoparticles,” Biotechnology and Bioprocess Engineering, vol. 22, no. 2, pp. 136–141, Apr. 2017, doi: 10.1007/s12257-016-0657-8.
- G. Baskar, I. Aberna Ebenezer Selvakumari, and R. Aiswarya, “Biodiesel production from castor oil using heterogeneous Ni doped ZnO nanocatalyst,” Bioresource Technology, vol. 250, pp. 793–798, Feb. 2018, doi: 10.1016/j.biortech.2017.12.010.
- Y. Chen, T. Liu, H. He, and H. Liang, “Fe 3 O 4 /ZnMg(Al)O magnetic nanoparticles for efficient biodiesel production,” Applied Organometallic Chemistry, vol. 32, no. 5, May 2018, doi: 10.1002/aoc.4330.
- P. C. M. Da Rós, G. A. M. Silva, A. A. Mendes, J. C. Santos, and H. F. de Castro, “Evaluation of the catalytic properties of Burkholderia cepacia lipase immobilized on non-commercial matrices to be used in biodiesel synthesis from different feedstocks,” Bioresource Technology, vol. 101, no. 14, pp. 5508–5516, Jul. 2010, doi: 10.1016/j.biortech.2010.02.061.
- K. Li, Y. Fan, Y. He, L. Zeng, X. Han, and Y. Yan, “Burkholderia cepacia lipase immobilized on heterofunctional magnetic nanoparticles and its application in biodiesel synthesis,” Scientific Reports, vol. 7, no. 1, p. 16473, Nov. 2017, doi: 10.1038/s41598-017-16626-5.
- H. Noureddini, X. Gao, and R. S. Philkana, “Immobilized Pseudomonas cepacia lipase for biodiesel fuel production from soybean oil,” Bioresource Technology, vol. 96, no. 7, pp. 769–777, May 2005, doi: 10.1016/j.biortech.2004.05.029.
- M. Ş. Adin, Ş. Altun, and M. Ş. Adin, “Effect of using bioethanol as fuel on start-up and warm-up exhaust emissions from a diesel power generator,” International Journal of Ambient Energy, vol. 43, no. 1, pp. 5711–5717, Dec. 2022, doi: 10.1080/01430750.2021.1977387.
- Ş. Altun, M. Ş. Adin, and K. İlçin, “Monohydric aliphatic alcohols as liquid fuels for using in internal combustion engines: A review,” Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part E: Journal of Process Mechanical Engineering, p. 095440892311604, Mar. 2023, doi: 10.1177/09544089231160472.
- Ş. Altun, C. Öner, F. Yaşar, and H. Adin, “Effect of n-Butanol Blending with a Blend of Diesel and Biodiesel on Performance and Exhaust Emissions of a Diesel Engine,” Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, vol. 50, no. 15, pp. 9425–9430, Aug. 2011, doi: 10.1021/ie201023f.
- A. Zahid et al., “Efficient Production of Biodiesel by the Transesterification of Neem Oil Using Ni-Doped ZnO Nanoparticles as Heterogeneous Catalysts,” Arabian Journal for Science and Engineering, Jan. 2024, doi: 10.1007/s13369-023-08616-9.
- A. Zahid et al., “Synthesis of Mn-Doped ZnO Nanoparticles and Their Application in the Transesterification of Castor Oil,” Catalysts, vol. 13, no. 1, p. 105, Jan. 2023, doi: 10.3390/catal13010105.
- P. Dasta, A. Pratap Singh, and A. Pratap Singh, “Zinc oxide nanoparticle as a heterogeneous catalyst in generation of biodiesel,” Materials Today: Proceedings, vol. 52, pp. 751–757, 2022, doi: 10.1016/j.matpr.2021.10.143.
- A. Athar Hussain et al., “Preparation of zinc oxide graphted nickel incorporated mesoporous SBA-16 doped graphene oxide: An efficient catalyst for transesterification of waste edible oil to biodiesel and photocatalytic degradation of organic dyes,” Inorganic Chemistry Communications, vol. 139, p. 109379, May 2022, doi: 10.1016/j.inoche.2022.109379.
- C. Chingakham, O. Manaf, A. Sujith, and V. Sajith, “Hydrophobic nano-bamboo fiber-reinforced acrylonitrile butadiene styrene electrospun membrane for the filtration of crude biodiesel,” Applied Nanoscience, vol. 10, no. 3, pp. 795–806, Mar. 2020, doi: 10.1007/s13204-019-01140-z.
- W. Xie and N. Ma, “Immobilized Lipase on Fe 3 O 4 Nanoparticles as Biocatalyst for Biodiesel Production,” Energy & Fuels, vol. 23, no. 3, pp. 1347–1353, Mar. 2009, doi: 10.1021/ef800648y.
- G. P. Chutia and K. Phukan, “Jute leaves ash@Fe3O4 as efficient nanocatalyst for sustainable biodiesel production: Characterization, optimization and kinetic investigation,” Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, vol. 131, pp. 288–304, Mar. 2024, doi: 10.1016/j.jiec.2023.10.028.
- S. Modupe Abati et al., “Biodiesel production from spent vegetable oil with Al2O3 and Fe2O3-biobased heterogenous nanocatalysts: Comparative and optimization studies,” Fuel, vol. 364, p. 130847, May 2024, doi: 10.1016/j.fuel.2023.130847.
- R. C. Rodrigues et al., “Immobilization of lipases on hydrophobic supports: immobilization mechanism, advantages, problems, and solutions,” Biotechnology Advances, vol. 37, no. 5, pp. 746–770, Sep. 2019, doi: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2019.04.003.
- S.-L. Cao et al., “Preparation and Characterization of Immobilized Lipase from Pseudomonas Cepacia onto Magnetic Cellulose Nanocrystals,” Scientific Reports, vol. 6, no. 1, p. 20420, Feb. 2016, doi: 10.1038/srep20420.
- T. Jan, J. Iqbal, M. Ismail, Q. Mansoor, A. Mahmood, and A. Ahmad, “Eradication of Multi-drug Resistant Bacteria by Ni Doped ZnO Nanorods: Structural, Raman and optical characteristics,” Applied Surface Science, vol. 308, pp. 75–81, Jul. 2014, doi: 10.1016/j.apsusc.2014.04.100.
- D.-T. Tran, C.-L. Chen, and J.-S. Chang, “Continuous biodiesel conversion via enzymatic transesterification catalyzed by immobilized Burkholderia lipase in a packed-bed bioreactor,” Applied Energy, vol. 168, pp. 340–350, Apr. 2016, doi: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2016.01.082.
- H. K. Lee, E. H. Jeong, C. K. Baek, and J. H. Youk, “One-step preparation of ultrafine poly(acrylonitrile) fibers containing silver nanoparticles,” Materials Letters, vol. 59, no. 23, pp. 2977–2980, Oct. 2005, doi: 10.1016/j.matlet.2005.05.005.
- P. Ye, Z.-K. Xu, J. Wu, C. Innocent, and P. Seta, “Nanofibrous Membranes Containing Reactive Groups: Electrospinning from Poly(acrylonitrile- c o -maleic acid) for Lipase Immobilization,” Macromolecules, vol. 39, no. 3, pp. 1041–1045, Feb. 2006, doi: 10.1021/ma0517998.
- T. Sathish et al., “Pore size variation of nano-porous material fixer on the engine bowl and its combined effects on hybrid nano-fuelled CI engine characteristics,” Fuel, vol. 345, Aug. 2023, doi: 10.1016/j.fuel.2023.128149.
- M. O. A. Sajjad, T. Sathish, R. Saravanan, M. Asif, E. Linul, and Ü. Ağbulut, “Combustion, performance and emission discussion of soapberry seed oil methyl ester blends and exhaust gas recirculation in common rail direct fuel injection system,” Energy, vol. 278, p. 127763, Sep. 2023, doi: 10.1016/j.energy.2023.127763.
- T. Sathish et al., “Waste to fuel: Synergetic effect of hybrid nanoparticle usage for the improvement of CI engine characteristics fuelled with waste fish oils,” Energy, vol. 275, p. 127397, Jul. 2023, doi: 10.1016/j.energy.2023.127397.
- M. O. A. Sajjad, T. Sathish, M. Rajasimman, and T. R. Praveenkumar, “Experimental evaluation of soapberry seed oil biodiesel performance in CRDI diesel engine,” Scientific Reports, vol. 13, no. 1, p. 5699, Apr. 2023, doi: 10.1038/s41598-023-32424-8.
- T. Sathish et al., “Waste to fuel: Pyrolysis of waste transformer oil and its evaluation as alternative fuel along with different nanoparticles in CI engine with exhaust gas recirculation,” Energy, vol. 267, p. 126595, Mar. 2023, doi: 10.1016/j.energy.2022.126595.
- T. Sathish, R. Saravanan, M. Rajasimman, A. A. Ghfar, and V. Ramkumar, “Nanoparticle assorted biofuels production from biowastes through transesterification,” Fuel, vol. 331, p. 125875, Jan. 2023, doi: 10.1016/j.fuel.2022.125875.
- A. M. Liaquat et al., “Effect of Coconut Biodiesel Blended Fuels on Engine Performance and Emission Characteristics,” Procedia Engineering, vol. 56, pp. 583–590, 2013, doi: 10.1016/j.proeng.2013.03.163.