Main Article Content
Abstract
Lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4) batteries offer advantages such as low cost, safety, environmental compatibility, and stability over repeated cycles. However, when subjected to high currents, this battery generates thermal issues, particularly when arranged in packs. This study aims to maintain the LiFePO4 80Ah battery within an optimal temperature range (20 °C – 40 °C) while minimizing pumping power. The proposed research introduces a serpentine channel with additional branches. The design variations include a gradient in branch spacing and changes in channel width. Each design is evaluated using dimensionless parameters representing maximum temperature, temperature uniformity, pumping power, and cooling efficiency coefficient. The best design from each variation is then compared with the conventional serpentine (CS) channel design, which is well-known for its superior thermal performance. The gradient variation reduces 𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥∗ and 𝑇𝜎 by 0.07 and by 0.42, respectively, compared to the non-gradient channel design, at a Re 400 and a C-rate 3 C. The design with the largest channel width reduces 𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥∗ by 0.57 or 11.32 °C compared to the design with the smallest channel width. At a Re 1000 and C-rate 3 C, the reduction in 𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥∗ for the proposed channel design compared to the CS design is 0.017. In terms of the friction factor (𝑓), the proposed design is 0.0149 lower than the CS design. The results indicate that the thermal performance of the proposed channel design is better than that of the CS design, with reduced pumping power.
Keywords
Article Details

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
References
- H. Fathabadi, “A novel design including cooling media for Lithium-ion batteries pack used in hybrid and electric vehicles,” Journal of Power Sources, vol. 245, pp. 495–500, Jan. 2014, doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2013.06.160.
- I. C. Setiawan and M. Setiyo, “Renewable and Sustainable Green Diesel (D100) for Achieving Net Zero Emission in Indonesia Transportation Sector,” Automotive Experiences, vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 1–2, Mar. 2022, doi: 10.31603/ae.6895.
- T. Raja, M. Setiyo, V. Murugan, and S. Dhandapani, “Analysis of the Temperature Variation of Bizarre Thermal Barrier Coatings and their impacts on Engine,” Automotive Experiences, vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 497–514, Nov. 2023, doi: 10.31603/ae.9802.
- T. H. Ariwibowo and A. Miyara, “Thermal Characteristics of Slinky-Coil Ground Heat Exchanger with Discrete Double Inclined Ribs,” Resources, vol. 9, no. 9, p. 105, Aug. 2020, doi: 10.3390/resources9090105.
- L. Z. Ouyang et al., “Low-cost method for sodium borohydride regeneration and the energy efficiency of its hydrolysis and regeneration process,” Journal of Power Sources, vol. 269, pp. 768–772, Dec. 2014, doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2014.07.074.
- G. Guo, B. Long, B. Cheng, S. Zhou, P. Xu, and B. Cao, “Three-dimensional thermal finite element modeling of lithium-ion battery in thermal abuse application,” Journal of Power Sources, vol. 195, no. 8, pp. 2393–2398, Apr. 2010, doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2009.10.090.
- A. R. Abrari, T. H. Ariwibowo, D. Pramadihanto, N. R. Arini, and R. S. Dewanto, “Thermodynamic Analysis of Battery Thermal Management System in Electric Van for Tropical Climate: A Preliminary Study,” in 2024 International Electronics Symposium (IES), Denpasar, Indonesia, 2024, pp. 66–71, doi: 10.1109/IES63037.2024.10665770.
- S. Zhu, A. Huang, and Y. Xu, “Improving Methods for better Performance of Commercial LiFePO4/C Batteries,” International Journal of Electrochemical Science, vol. 16, no. 5, p. 210564, May 2021, doi: 10.20964/2021.05.49.
- R. E. Williford, V. V. Viswanathan, and J.-G. Zhang, “Effects of entropy changes in anodes and cathodes on the thermal behavior of lithium ion batteries,” Journal of Power Sources, vol. 189, no. 1, pp. 101–107, Apr. 2009, doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2008.10.078.
- M. A. Fitrony, T. H. Ariwibowo, M. R. Rusli, E. H. Binugroho, and D. Pramadihanto, “A Thermal Investigation of Heat Sink with Dimple in Battery Cooling for Electric Motorbike Application,” in 2024 International Electronics Symposium (IES), Denpasar, Indonesia, 2024, pp. 1–6, doi: 10.1109/IES63037.2024.10665800.
- H. Liu, H. Shi, H. Shen, and G. Xie, “The performance management of a Li-ion battery by using tree-like mini-channel heat sinks: Experimental and numerical optimization,” Energy, vol. 189, p. 116150, Dec. 2019, doi: 10.1016/j.energy.2019.116150.
- X. Liu, T. Feng, S. Chen, and H. Wei, “Effects of Different Templates on Electrochemical Performance of LiFePO4/C Prepared by Supercritical Hydrothermal Method,” International Journal of Electrochemical Science, vol. 11, no. 3, pp. 2276–2283, 2016, doi: 10.1016/S1452-3981(23)16101-3.
- A. A. Pesaran, “Battery thermal models for hybrid vehicle simulations,” Journal of Power Sources, vol. 110, no. 2, pp. 377–382, Aug. 2002, doi: 10.1016/S0378-7753(02)00200-8.
- Z. Xiao, G. Hu, K. Du, and Z. Peng, “Improving electrochemical performances of LiFePO4/C cathode material via a novel three-layer electrode,” Transactions of Nonferrous Metals Society of China, vol. 23, no. 11, pp. 3324–3329, Nov. 2013, doi: 10.1016/S1003-6326(13)62871-X.
- W. Waag and D. U. Sauer, “Adaptive estimation of the electromotive force of the lithium-ion battery after current interruption for an accurate state-of-charge and capacity determination,” Applied Energy, vol. 111, pp. 416–427, Nov. 2013, doi: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2013.05.001.
- Z. Rao and S. Wang, “A review of power battery thermal energy management,” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 15, no. 9, pp. 4554–4571, Dec. 2011, doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2011.07.096.
- O. Kalkan, A. Celen, and K. Bakirci, “Experimental and numerical investigation of the LiFePO4 battery cooling by natural convection,” Journal of Energy Storage, vol. 40, p. 102796, Aug. 2021, doi: 10.1016/j.est.2021.102796.
- O. Kalkan, A. Celen, K. Bakirci, and A. S. Dalkilic, “Experimental investigation of thermal performance of novel cold plate design used in a Li-ion pouch-type battery,” Applied Thermal Engineering, vol. 191, p. 116885, Jun. 2021, doi: 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2021.116885.
- W. Wu, S. Wang, W. Wu, K. Chen, S. Hong, and Y. Lai, “A critical review of battery thermal performance and liquid based battery thermal management,” Energy Conversion and Management, vol. 182, pp. 262–281, Feb. 2019, doi: 10.1016/j.enconman.2018.12.051.
- K. Monika and S. P. Datta, “Comparative assessment among several channel designs with constant volume for cooling of pouch-type battery module,” Energy Conversion and Management, vol. 251, p. 114936, Jan. 2022, doi: 10.1016/j.enconman.2021.114936.
- G. Zhao, X. Wang, M. Negnevitsky, and C. Li, “An up-to-date review on the design improvement and optimization of the liquid-cooling battery thermal management system for electric vehicles,” Applied Thermal Engineering, vol. 219, p. 119626, Jan. 2023, doi: 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2022.119626.
- X. Mo, H. Zhi, Y. Xiao, H. Hua, and L. He, “Topology optimization of cooling plates for battery thermal management,” International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, vol. 178, p. 121612, Oct. 2021, doi: 10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2021.121612.
- Y. Huang et al., “A novel approach for Lithium-ion battery thermal management with streamline shape mini channel cooling plates,” Applied Thermal Engineering, vol. 157, p. 113623, Jul. 2019, doi: 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2019.04.033.
- Y. Huo, Z. Rao, X. Liu, and J. Zhao, “Investigation of power battery thermal management by using mini-channel cold plate,” Energy Conversion and Management, vol. 89, pp. 387–395, Jan. 2015, doi: 10.1016/j.enconman.2014.10.015.
- H. Liu, X. Gao, J. Zhao, M. Yu, D. Niu, and Y. Ji, “Liquid-based battery thermal management system performance improvement with intersected serpentine channels,” Renewable Energy, vol. 199, pp. 640–652, Nov. 2022, doi: 10.1016/j.renene.2022.09.026.
- S. Lin and L. Zhou, “Thermal performance of rectangular serpentine mini-channel cooling system on lithium battery,” Journal of Cleaner Production, vol. 418, p. 138125, Sep. 2023, doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.138125.
- T. Deng, G. Zhang, and Y. Ran, “Study on thermal management of rectangular Li-ion battery with serpentine-channel cold plate,” International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, vol. 125, pp. 143–152, Oct. 2018, doi: 10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2018.04.065.
- H. M. Jaffal, N. S. Mahmoud, A. A. Imran, and A. Hasan, “Performance enhancement of a novel serpentine channel cooled plate used for cooling of Li-ion battery module,” International Journal of Thermal Sciences, vol. 184, p. 107955, Feb. 2023, doi: 10.1016/j.ijthermalsci.2022.107955.
- S. Sun, C. Ma, X. Wang, Y. Yang, and J. Mei, “Design and optimisation of a novel serpentine flow channel with branch structure,” Energy, vol. 293, p. 130494, Apr. 2024, doi: 10.1016/j.energy.2024.130494.
- N. Wang, C. Li, W. Li, X. Chen, Y. Li, and D. Qi, “Heat dissipation optimization for a serpentine liquid cooling battery thermal management system: An application of surrogate assisted approach,” Journal of Energy Storage, vol. 40, p. 102771, Aug. 2021, doi: 10.1016/j.est.2021.102771.
- L. Fan, J. Li, Y. Chen, D. Zhou, Z. Jiang, and J. Sun, “Study on the cooling performance of a new secondary flow serpentine liquid cooling plate used for lithium battery thermal management,” International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, vol. 218, p. 124711, Jan. 2024, doi: 10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2023.124711.
- Md. H. ALI and A. MIYARA, “Analysis of Optimum Slinky Loop Arrangement for Horizontal Ground Heat Exchanger.” Japan Society of Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers, 31-Dec-2017 [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.11322/tjsrae.17-55HE. [Accessed: 22-Nov-2024]
- EVE Battery, “LF80 LFP Power Battery Product Specification,” LF80-73103, Aug. 2018.
- I. H. Bell, J. Wronski, S. Quoilin, and V. Lemort, “Pure and Pseudo-pure Fluid Thermophysical Property Evaluation and the Open-Source Thermophysical Property Library CoolProp,” Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., vol. 53, no. 6, pp. 2498–2508, Feb. 2014, doi: 10.1021/ie4033999.
- J. Tu, G.-H. Yeoh, and C. Liu, “Governing Equations for CFD: Fundamentals,” in Computational Fluid Dynamics, Elsevier, 2018, pp. 65–124 [Online]. Available: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780081011270000039. [Accessed: 22-Nov-2024]
- L. Rao and J. Newman, “Heat‐Generation Rate and General Energy Balance for Insertion Battery Systems,” J. Electrochem. Soc., vol. 144, no. 8, pp. 2697–2704, Aug. 1997, doi: 10.1149/1.1837884.
- X. Qian, D. Xuan, X. Zhao, and Z. Shi, “Heat dissipation optimization of lithium-ion battery pack based on neural networks,” Applied Thermal Engineering, vol. 162, p. 114289, Nov. 2019, doi: 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2019.114289.
- Y. Shi, S. Ahmad, H. Liu, K. T. Lau, and J. Zhao, “Optimization of air-cooling technology for LiFePO4 battery pack based on deep learning,” Journal of Power Sources, vol. 497, p. 229894, Jun. 2021, doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2021.229894.
- A. Jarrett and I. Y. Kim, “Influence of operating conditions on the optimum design of electric vehicle battery cooling plates,” Journal of Power Sources, vol. 245, pp. 644–655, Jan. 2014, doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2013.06.114.
- T. L. Bergman, A. Lavine, and F. P. Incropera, Fundamentals of heat and mass transfer, Eighth edition. Wiley abridged print companion. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2019.
- J. Tu, G.-H. Yeoh, and C. Liu, “CFD Mesh Generation: A Practical Guideline,” in Computational Fluid Dynamics, Elsevier, 2018, pp. 125–154 [Online]. Available: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780081011270000040. [Accessed: 22-Nov-2024].